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Modified: 15.12.2010

Pyhäsalmi - ZINC Database

  Publications on the deposit

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Name Pyhäsalmi DATA UPDATED December 15, 2010 by Kaj Västi
Secondary names Ruotanen
Site photo 1 pyhasalmi_airphoto_autumn_th Site photo 2 pyhasalmi_airphoto_summer_th
LOCATION
Geological domain Svecofennian Province Pyhäsalmi-Pielavesi Region
Regional map 1 pyhasalmi_region_map_th Regional map 2  
Map sheet 332112
Northing 7062380 Easting 3452930
Latitude 63.65948N Longitude 26.04611E
Municipality Pyhäjärvi
Nearest town, access 5 km SE form Pyhäsalmi, 150 km S of Oulu. Railway and a sealed road to the mine; 3 km from the Highway no. 27.
MINING
Mine photo 1 pyhasalmi_mine_model2004_th Mine photo 2  
Mine photo 3 pyhasalmi_mining_resources_th Mine photo 4 pyhasalmi_resources_th
Exploration licence no 1317/1-23 Mining concession no 1317/1a-d
Present holder Inmet Mining Co (2002-)
Previous holders Outokumpu Oyj (1959-2002)
Status of development Open pit and underground mine, active
When mined Open pit closed 1962-76, underground 1967- [26].
Resources and grades 13.4 Mt @ 2.2% Zn, 1.1% Cu, 14 ppm Ag, 0.4 ppm Au, 41.4% S (= proven reserve estimated as at December 31, in 2008).
8.2 Mt @ 0.4% Zn, 0.6% Cu, 43.8% S (= measured resource estimated as at December 31, in 2008). [42]
Total production 44.2 Mt ore: 1.105 Mt Zn, 397800 t Cu, 618.8 t Ag, 17.7 t Au (years 1962-2008). [42]
Total in-situ content 1.433 Mt Zn, 0.594 Mt Cu (production + reserve + resource); 806.4 t Ag, 23.1 t Au (production + reserve). [42]
Size of the deposit (Mt) 65.8 Size reference [42]
Best sections 22.25 m @ 7.99% Zn, 0.4% Cu, and 44 m @ 1.55% Zn, 1.85% Cu: total 66.25 m of ore [1].
Extent of the deposit

Vertical extent: 1400 m, horizontal length (N-S): 650m, maximum width: 80 m [43].
Ore bodies A hammer-shaped ore body: a flat, subvertical (80° to the ESE), 1000 m long, 150-650 m wide and 10-60 m thick 'handle' extending from the surface to about 1000 m depth [1]. At the surface, in horizontal section, the lode has a shape of an open 'S' with roughly a NNE-SSW strike [9,10,13]. At the lower end of the 'handle', 1000-1400 m below surface, a 300-400x200-300 m 'knob' of the 'hammer', in a fold-nose [1]. The 'handle' and the ''knob' are separated from each other by a shear zone characterised by talc-sericite alteration [39].
Plan figure 1 pyhasalmi_section360_th Plan figure 2 pyhasalmi_deep_ore_cross_section_th
Plan figure 3   Plan figure 4  
Section figure 1 pyhasalmi_deep_longsection_th Section figure 2 pyhasalmi_entire_ore_views_th
Section figure 3 pyhasalmi_deep_explor_drilling_th Section figure 4 pyhasalmi_deep_ore1_th
EXPLORATION
Explor. site photo 1 pyhasalmi_airphoto_winter_th Explor. site photo 2  
Discovery year 1958
Discovery Discovered in 22 August 1958 when a local farmer dug a well through the overburden (till) into an subcrop of the massive ore [7,11,13,16,22].
Exploration history Outokumpu Oy (1958-) [1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9,12,13,21,22,23,30]: Bedrock mapping, glacial erratic boulder surveys in regional scale, percussion and diamond drilling, pilot plant tests, ground magnetic, slingram, IP, turam and gravimetric survey, airborne magnetic and electric survey, geochemical till survey, silicate and ore mineral petrography investigations, low-altitude airborne electromagnetic survey (1959, 1962).
GTK (1977-1990's) [6,11,17,18,20,23,32]: Regional bedrock mapping and structural studies, airborne high- and low-altitude magnetic, electric and radiometric survey; statistical regional analyses by integrating regional bedrock and ore geology and petrography, satellite image analysis, geophysical and till geochemical data.
Drilling Outokumpu Oy: During the first 8 months of exploration (1958-59): 47 diamond-drill holes, total 8650 m [22].
During mining (1962-), Outokumpu Oy: Diamond and percussion drilling with an yearly rate at 2-10 km and 2-8 km, respectively [2]. In the area below -1000 m: underground mapping and diamond drilling for >22 km during 1997-1999 [1].
Trench figure 1   Trench figure 2  
Elements analysed [2]: Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P, S, Au, Ag, Ba, Cu, Pb, Zn, Zr (XRF, AAS).
[7,21]: Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P, S, Au, Ag, As, Ba, Br, Cl, Co, Cu, Ga, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn, Sr, Zn, REE (XRF, AAS, Leco, INAA).
Economic evaluations Feasibility studies 1958-1962, 1967, 1976, 1996, and 1999 by Outokumpu Oy [1,13].
Geophysical response A slingram and a gravimetric anomaly related to the ore [8].
Geophys. anomaly fig. 1   Geophys. anomaly fig. 2  
Petrophysics Click here
Primary geochemical dispersion In felsic rocks K/Na, and in mafic rocks Mg/Ca increase towards the ore [7,21]. A distinct dispersion halo around ore is also defined by Ag, Ba, Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb, Sa and Zn; the Zn, Pb, Cu and Ba anomalies extend laterally for 200-400 m from the ore [7,21]. The most consistent geochemical vectors to ore are defined by S and K/Na [7,21].
Secondary geochemical dispersion Zn, Cd, Cu and S anomaly in till extending for 600 m from the ore [20]. Transport distance of fine fraction in till is 500 m [17].
Primary anomaly fig. 1   Secondary anomaly fig. 1  
Primary anomaly fig. 2   Secondary anomaly fig. 2  
Primary anomaly fig. 3   Secondary anomaly fig. 3  
Exploration geologist(s) in charge Outokumpu: Veikko Vähätalo, Olavi Helovuori, Timo Mäki
ORE
Ore outcrop photo 1   Ore outcrop photo 2  
Major ore minerals Pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite [2,6,13,33,35].
Minor ore minerals Fahlore, galena, arsenopyrite, marcasite, magnetite, electrum, gold, jordanite, bournonite, seligmanite, hessite, native arsenic, wehrlite, molybdenite [4,13,33].
Ore mineral photo 1 pyhasalmi_cu_ore_photo_th Ore mineral photo 2 pyhasalmi_zn_ore_photo_th
Ore mineral photo 3 pyhasalmi_oresample_th Ore mineral photo 4 ag_cpy_py_pyhasalmi_th
Ore mineral photo 5 ag_cpy_sp_py_pyhasalmi_th Ore mineral photo 6 au_gn_sp_in_fracture_pyhasalmi_th
Ore mineral photo 7 au_sp_cpy_in_fractures_pyhasalmi_th Ore mineral photo 8 ele_cpy_pyhasalmi_th
Gangue Quartz, baryte, sericite, calcite, dolomite, plagioclase, tourmaline, talc [7,13,24,33].
Zoning Original zoning, from bottom to top: pyrite, pyrite-chalcopyrite, pyrite-chalcopyrite-sphalerite, pyrite-sphalerite; this is accompanied with increase in baryte/carbonate ratio [39]. Presently, consistent zoning, variable zoning bepending on part of the deposit; the present zoning is a metamoprhic feature [35,38]. The main ore = 'the handle of the hammer': Zn in the centre and Cu in the margins; pyrrhotite has replaced pyrite in the S end of the ore [2,7,9,10]. The 'knob of the hammer' at depth: massive pyrite in the centre, enveloped by Cu ore and then by Zn ore [1]. The elements Ag, As, Au, Bi, Pb, Sb and Te are strongly enriched in two settings: 1) in the felsic porphyry and marble inclusions in the ore and in the most proximal wallrocks, and 2) in chalcopyrite-rich ore [4,5].
Ore composition Click here Ore mineral compositions Click here
Primary structures Colloform and fine banded carbonate patches in Spotty Pyrite Ore and A Zinc Ore [39].
Ore fabric Ore types: 1) Coarse massive pyrite ore with sphalerite and chalcopyrite, commonly sphalerite bands; 2) porphyroclastic ore with rounded or fractured, 5-10 mm, pyrite phenocrysts in fine-grained pyrite-sphalerite matrix; 3) disseminated ore, sporadic sphalerite and chalcopyrite - possibly, the primary stringer mineralisation; 4) pyrrhotite ore, located close to the pegmatite; 5) ore accumulations at the contact between massive ore and wallrocks = remobilised Au-Ag-As-Pb-Sb-Bi-Te mineralisation in rocks dominated by the gangue minerals [2,9,13,24,26,38].
Ore types [39]: 1) Massive Pyrite, massive, 0.2-2 cm pyrite porphyroblasts, 90-95% sulphides; 2) Spotty Massive Pyrite, colloform, crustified and replacement textures, digenetic banding, 70-85 sulphides; 3) A Cu-Pyrite, cataclastic, clast-supported breccia, massive, 90% sulphides; 4) A Zinc, dissemination, banding, 40-60% sulphides; 5) B Zinc, porphyroclastic breccia, mylonitic banding, >60% sulphides; 6) Remobilised Sulphides, veins, veinlets, replacement in xenoliths and wallrocks, 50-95% sulphides.
Enriched components Ore: Ag, As, Au, Ba, Bi, Cu, Pb, S, Sb, Se, Te, Zn [2,4,5,7,9,13,21].
Rhyolites: distal enrichment: Na; proximal enrichment: Ag, Ba, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, K, LOI, Mg, Ni, Pb, Rb, Si, S, Zn; proximal enrichment in hangingwall cordierite-bearing rocks: Mg; proximal depletion: Na, Ca, Sr [2,13,21,24,31,35,36]. Depletion of Na, Sr and Ca throughout the system except in 'skarns' [21,35]. No distinct, alteration-related, REE anomalies detected [21,24].
Basalts: proximal enrichment: S, Si, Sr, LOI, K, Mg, Ba, Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Co, Ag, Rb; proximal depletion: Ca, Na, Sr [2,13,31,36].
Dolomites: proximal enrichment: Si, Mg(?); proximal depletion: CO2 [2].
Geothermo- and barometry  
Ore fluid  
Stable isotope data Pyrite in ore, average: δ34S +7.5 per mill [13,15].
Pb isotope data Pb-Pb ratios suggest mineralisation at about 1.9 Ga [13]. Model age for galena from ore 1944 or 1969 Ma; the data also suggest a significant input of crustal Pb into the mineralising system [14].
GEOLOGY
Regional geology map 1 pyhasalmi_region_map_th Regional geology map 2  
Local geology map 1 pyhasalmi_surface_geol_th Local geology map 2  
Geological setting

The Pyhäsalmi volcanic complex is divided into the Ruotanen formation (Ruf) in the west (formerly known as Ruotanen Schist Belt [2,9,13,26]) and the Mullikkoräme formation Muf) in the east. Syntectonic plutonic rocks (Kokkokangas granodiorite and Jusko quartzdioriteo/diorite) separate these formations.
The Pyhäsalmi mine is located in the N-S trending, 9 km long and 0.5-4 km wide Ruotanen formation. The lowermost part of the formation consists of unaltered felsic metavolcanites with minor mafic intercalations. Upwards mafic and intermediate metavolcanites become more abundant. Although the metavolcanites are locally well preserved, most of the rocks have been intensively altered by hydrothermal processes and deformed by later tectonic events [43].
The Ruotanen formation consists of seven separate members. The lowermost Kettuperä member has been defined on the basis of drill hole data (there are no outcrops). Pinkish-grey felsic metavolcanites of the Kettuperä member are intruded by medium-grained granodioritic gneiss wedges (Kokkokangas granodiorite).
The Kettuperä member is overlain by grey felsic metavolcanites of the Lippikylä member, which in turn is overlain by the Lepikko lithodeme, the host to the Pyhäsalmi Zn-Cu deposit, consisting of moderately and pervasively altered felsic and mafic volcanites appearing now as pale greenish-yellow sericite-cordierite schists or –rocks. Alteration around the ore is pervasive showing strong serisitization and a lot of yellowish brown and dark pinitized cordierite.
East of Pyhäsalmi mine there is a large area of altered mafic volcanites called Lehto lithodeme. It consists of anthophyllite-cordierite-bearing gneisses and rocks (originally mafic lavas and pyroclastites) with a large amount of amphibole-mica-garnet-magnetite-bearing heterogeneous varieties including amphibolitic and uralite-phyric dikes [43].
Jurvansuu member, a small area lying only a few hundred meters northeast of the Pyhäsalmi open pit, is interpreted overlying the main sericitic alteration zone. It mainly consists of reworked felsic to intermediate volcanites.
Mukurinperä member overlies the above mentioned members. It is located in the western and souteastern parts of the Ruotanen formation and it is composed of unaltered mafic volcanites. The westernmost Pellonpää member represents the mixed lithologies of volcanites, epiclastites and carbonate sediments succeeding the extrusion of the Mukurinperä mafic volcanites.
The northernmost Särkisalo member, surrounded by intrusive rocks, consists of unaltered felsic, intermediate and mafic volcanites with abundant mafic and granitic dykes. There are no outcrops in this area and the stratigraphic position of this member is obscure, but most probably it can be correlated to the lower part of the Ruotanen formation [43].
Trace element chemistry of the volcanic rocks indicates a mature island arc setting [41].
Major host rocks Pyroclastic rhyolite [2,6,7,9,11,12,16,35].
Minor host rocks Rhyolitic lava, mafic lava and tuff breccia, dolomite [2,6,7,12,16].
Intrusives The Kokkokangas granodiorite (pale grey, medium-grained and slightly to moderately foliated) and Jusko quartzdiorite/diorite (medium-grained, slightly oriented or unoriented) in the centre of the Pyhäsalmi volcanic complex are the dominant intrusives. The zircon U-Pb age of the quartzdiorite yielded 1893 ±3 Ma. Volcanic complex is surrounded by granitic intrusions. On the western side of the area, coarse-grained porphyric granite yielded a U-Pb age of 1883±25 Ma [43]. 1875 Ma(?) plagioclase porphyries (U-Pb age from zircon [13]) post-date mineralisation, as they, and quartz porphyries and certain 'amphibolites' (originally dolerites?), cut across the massive ore, although also are deformed, as the dykes are fragmented, possibly into large boudins [2,13]. Granitoid intrusions in the area date at 1886-1867 Ma [11,16] and they intrude the entire volcanic sequence [16]. Pegmatites intruded the deposit during D4 [38].
Outcrop photo 1 pyhasalmi_deep_ore_contact_photo_th Outcrop photo 2 pyhasalmi_deepore_pg_remob_sulphides_2_th
Outcrop photo 3 pyhasalmi_deepore_pg_remob_sulphides_1_th Outcrop photo 4  
METAMORPHISM AND DEFORMATION
Metamorphic history The age of the peak metamorphism and D4 are unclear, however most of the metamorphic reactions detected in the Ruotanen area took place during D4 and all these reactions indicate decreasing pressure (probably also temperature) and intense fluid activity during shearing [43]. Although there are no age determinations for D4 , age data for granitic intrusions (emblazed 1860-1800 Ma ago) along the Oulunjärvi shear zone provides broad limits for the Retrograde metamorphism during D4. In addition there are two age determinations for sphene in the mine area, which yielded the ages of 1830-1800 Ma. These ages can be interpreted as the metamorphic ages of D4 stage [43].
Metamorphic grade Although the peak conditions of metamorphism appear high, no indications of partial melting have been found in the vicinity of the Pyhäsalmi mine. The highest metamorphic conditions obtained in the mine area are ca. 600-700 oC and 5-7 kb and the lowest ca. 530 oC and 2.5 kb [43].
Metamorphic mineral assemblages Massive ore: pyrite-sphalerite-baryte-pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite-calcite-dolomite [7].
Sericite-rich schists (altered felsic rocks): quartz-sericite-feldspar [21].
Felsic, unaltered volcanic rocks: quartz-plagioclase-K feldspar-biotite-muscovite [13].
Mafic(?), altered metavolcanic rock: cordierite-biotite-almandine-plagioclase-quartz [11].
Mafic, unaltered volcanic rocks: plagioclase-hornblende ± quartz, biotite, cummingtonite [13].
Skarns: dolomite-diopside-tremolite ± olivine, condrodite, serpentine, plagioclase, garnet, quartz [13,11].
Metamorph photo 1 pyhasalmi_cu_ore_photo_th Metamorph photo 2 pyhasalmi_zn_ore_photo_th
Deformation history
Polyphase deformation (five or four stages) post-dating sulphide mineralisation [2,6,7,17,28,43,44], at about 1900-1875 Ma [15,16]. The dominant feature is the isoclinal D2 folding of the ore with an axial plunge to the S at 40-60° [7,21,28]. Collision against the Archean Karelian Craton started at 1.91 Ma (= D1) and culminated with voluminous granitoid intrusion at about 1885 Ma: peak regional metamorphism and D2 deformation took place at 1.89 Ma and was followed by transpressional D3 deformation at 1885 Ma. Once D3 folding was over, intence D4 shearing played an important role in orienting and transposing lithologies in the deeper parts of the deposit [34,35,43].
Structure photo 1 pyhasalmi_deepore_footwallcontact_th Structure photo 2 pyhasalmi_deepore_driveroof_pg_ in_foldhinge_th
Structure photo 3 pyhasalmi_deep_ore_mesoscale_fold_th Structure photo 4
ALTERATION
Regional alteration K-altered and Na-depleted rocks cover an area 100-1000 m wide and >6 km long along strike, at the present surface; the altered domain near the ore thins out at depth, probably due to deformation which has partially moved the ore away from its altered wallrocks [2,7,9,35]. Certain felsic units of the schist belt, beyond the K-enriched domain, show intense Na-enrichment [2,7]. In addition, there clearly are, in the area, Mg-enriched (originally chloritised) rocks derived from both mafic and felsic volcanic rocks [21].
Local alteration In both felsic and mafic altered volcanites Na, Ca and Sr are the most depleted elements whereas the most enriched elements are Mg, Ba, S, base metals and K. The alteration mineralogy of the volcanites shows that the K- and Mg-enrichment in felsic volcanites correlates with quantities of sericite, cordierite, phlogopite and chlorite. Correspondingly, in mafic volcanites the amount of cordierite, followed by chlorite, amphibole (orthoamphibole) and phlogopite is the best indicator for the alteration intensity [43].

Early hydrothermal stage: pyrite-sphalerite-quartz-baryte-chalcopyrite [39].
Late hydrothermal stage: pyrite-quartz-baryte-calcite-dolomite-magnetite-chalcopyrite [39].
Alteration-related mineral assemblages recrystallised during metamorphism:
Felsic rocks, proximal to ore: sericite-quartz-pyrite ± cordierite, sillimanite (these normally extend 20-50 m from ore) [21]; distal to ore: cordierite-biotite-plagioclase-quartz-muscovite [2,9,13,17,21].
Mafic volcanic rocks: cordierite-anthophyllite ± quartz, biotite, muscovite [2,7,12,13].
Dolomites: talc-chlorite ± anthophyllite, cordierite, sphalerite [2,9].
Tremolite skarn: quartz-plagioclase-tremolite-biotite [21].

To depict the primary character of volcanism in the area the least altered samples (defined with the Hashimoto index) were selected from as far from the ore as possible to get a general idea of the primary geochemical character of the volcanites. In Jensen diagram the felsic volcanites plot mostly in the tholeiitic rhyolite to dasite fields while mafic volcanites plot almost entirely in the high-Fe tholeiitic basalt field (alteration. fig. 1). According to their Zr/Y values most of the least altered felsic volcanites are of transitional affinity, and a small proportion of calc-alkaline affinity. The mafic volcanites are mostly of tholeiitic affinity, the small proportion showing transitional to calc-alkaline affinity (alteration fig. 2). In a SiO 2 – Zr/TiO 2 diagram the least altered felsic volcanites also plot mostly in the rhyolite and rhyodacite-dacite fields, whereas the least altered mafic volcanites trend from sub-alkaline basalt to andesite with some samples in the alkali basalt field (alteration fig. 3). The felsic volcanites have several clusters of Zr/TiO 2 values (alteration fig. 4), which can be seen when studying the new chemical analyses made for the Pyhäsalmi modelling project (JV between Outokumpu Mining Oy and Geological Survey of Finland) [43].
Alteration figure 1 Alteration figure 2
Alteration figure 3   Alteration figure 4  
Post-mineralisation modifications Overprinted by regional metamorphism and isoclinically folded and significantly thickened during the D2, recrystallisation with significant increase in the grain size of the sulphides (24,26,35). Significant thickening during D1 [38]. Deformation remobilised the massive ore, during 1900-1880 Ma [15,26], partially, into a setting where the envelope of altered wallrocks is left out [2,6,7,35], already during the D1-related folding and thrusting [6,38] and/or during D3 [35,38]. Remobilised sulphide veins have 'intruded' the wallrocks [2,25]. Significant noble-metal and As and Pb remobilisation and reprecipitation in the felsic porphyry and marble inclusions of the massive ore and into the immediate wallrocks during D4 with fluids derived from the pegmatites [4,5,35,38].
Late pegmatites, which cut across ore, have also caused, locally, pyrite replacement by pyrrhotite; this replacement is especially common in intensely D4-deformed areas [2,35].
TIMING Mineralisation took place between 1910 and 1930 Ma, possibly closer to 1930 Ma [15,16]. Pb-Pb whole-rock for the host rock sequence is 1909 ± 27 Ma [13] whereas titanite gives 1860 Ma [13]. The latter can be considered as a metamorphic age [16]. Hence, the mineralisation is older than 1.86 Ga, probably during 1.93-1.91 Ga [6,14,16].
SUPERGENE ALTERATION Supergene ore minerals: chalcocite, covelline and bornite [13]. Due to weathering in the upper parts of the deposit, pyrrhotite is replaced by melnikowitic pyrite and marcasite, and chalcopyrite by chalcocite, covelline and bornite; in addition, disintegration of sulphides has produced goethite, pisanite and brochantite [13].
GENETIC MODEL Evolution of the area started(?) with felsic magmatism (Na rhyolites) in an extensional continental-margin island-arc or primitive arc setting at about 1930 Ma [3,11,16,19,26,34] and was followed by mafic volcanism (low-K tholeiites of primitive island arc type) and sulphide mineralisation in a rifted marine setting and, soon after, by intermediate(?) calc-alkaline volcanism related to accretion(?) [2,16,26]. As a whole, the setting is an island-arc environment along the margin of the Archaean Karelian craton [7,12,16,26,27,35].
Sulphide mineralisation took place early during the evolution of the local sequence, in a rifted submarine environment by extensive hydrothermal circulation near mafic volcanic centres [2,6,12,16]. S-isotope data indicates a significant input of sea water into the hydrothermal system and the closeness of Pb-Pb model ages for ore galena and the radiometric ages for the host rocks further supporting the synvolcanic submarine hydrothermal model [15].
The possibly thin primary ore was packed into a significantly thicker lode by regional deformation [7,9,21].
Formed in submarine synvolcanic hydrothermal system: massive sulphides by sub-seafloor replacement of tuffaceous and intrusive rocks immediately below a hydrothermal mound, and semi-massive banded sulphides right above the sea floor [39].

The work by the Pyhäsalmi modelling project (JV) reported that the intrusion of hot rift related rhyolites is one of the most important factors, which control the ore location [43]. The problem of the metals source region was considered by modelling approximately the volumes of the source rock regions. This was done by calculating the volumes of ore fluid needed to form the ore deposit and assuming that all of the metals were leached from the least altered type of felsic volcanite. The calculation was based on the assumption that 50% of the source rock metals content (tot. 100 ppm Cu+Zn+Pb) was leached and re-deposited at a 90% level. Then the source rock volume for the Pyhäsalmi deposit (62 Mt) would be 17.8 km 3 [43].
GENETIC TYPE VMS References [6,12,13,15,43]
Alternative genetic type 1 Kuroko References [27,39]
Alternative genetic type 2   References  
Schematic model 1 vihanti_pyhasalmi_platetectonic_evolution_th Schematic model 2

References

1. Luukkonen, K., Mäki, T., Perä., P. & Niiranen, S. 2000. Pyhäsalmen uusi kaivos. Vuoriteollisuus 58, 16-20. (in Finnish)
2. Kousa, J., Luukas, J., Mäki, T., Ekdahl, E., Pelkonen, K., Papunen, H., Isomäki, O-P., Penttilä, V-J. & Nurmi, P. 1997. Geology and mineral deposits of the central Ostrobothnia. Geol. Surv. Finland, Guide 41, 43-67.
3. Rosenberg, P., Papunen, H., Ekberg, M. & Penttilä, V-J. 1988. Pyhäsalmen malmin rikastusmineralogiasta. Summary: Applications of mineralogy to benefication of the Pyhäsalmi ore. Vuoriteollisuus 46, 106-108.
4. Eilu, P., Papunen, H. & Reino, J. 1988. Pyhäsalmen malmin kullasta. Summary: Distribution of gold in the Pyhäsalmi ore deposit. Vuoriteollisuus 46, 20-24.
5. Mustonen, A. 1998. Pyhäsalmen malmin sivukivien kultamineralisaatiot. Unpublished MSc thesis. Department of Geology, University of Turku. 59 p. (in Finnish)
6. Puustjärvi, H. 1992. Massiivisten sulfidimalmien tutkimukset Pyhäsalmen ympäristössä. In: Ekdahl, E. (ed.) Suomen kallioperän kehitys ja raaka-ainevarat: symposio Oulussa 1.-2.10.1992. Vuorimiesyhdistys. Sarja B 51, 80-93. (in Finnish)
7. Mäki, T. 1986. Lithogeochemistry of the Pyhäsalmi zinc-copper-pyrite deposit, Finland. In: Prospecting in Areas of Glaciated Terrain 1986. Kuopio, Finland, 1-2 September, 1986. London: The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 69-82.
8. Rekola, T. 1992. Recent geophysical surveys for massive sulphides in the Pyhäsalmi area central Finland. In: European Association of Exploration Geophysicists 54. Meeting and Technical Exhibition, Paris, France 1-5 June 1992. Technical Programme and Abstracts of Papers. Zeist: European Association of Exploration Geophysicists (EAEG), 316-317.
9. Ekberg, M. & Penttilä, V-J. 1986. The Pyhäsalmi Cu-Zn-pyrite deposit. In: Gaál, G. (ed.) Proterozoic Mineral Deposits in Central Finland. 7th IAGOD Symposium and Nordkalott Project Meeting (Luleå, 1986): Excursion Guide no 5. Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning. Ser. Ca 63, 20-25.
10. Lestinen, P. 1983. Sulphide deposits of central Finland. Outokumpu, Pyhäsalmi, Vihanti. X IGES - III SMGP Symposium, 1983. Excursion Guide. Espoo: Geol. Surv. Finland. 9 p.
11. Marttila, E. 1993. Pyhäjärven kartta-alueen kallioperä. Summary: Pre-Quaternary rocks of the Pyhäjärvi map-sheet area. Suomen geologinen kartta 1:100 000. Explanation for sheet 3321. Geol. Surv. Finland, Espoo. 64 p.
12. Huhtala, T. 1979. The geology and zinc-copper deposits of the Pyhäsalmi-Pielavesi district, Finland. Economic Geology 74, 1069-1083.
13. Helovuori, O. 1979. Geology of the Pyhäsalmi ore deposit, Finland. Economic Geology 74, 1084-1101.
14. Vaasjoki, M. 1981. The lead isotopic compositions of some Finnish galenas. Geol. Surv. Finland, Bulletin 316. 30 p.
15. Vaasjoki, M. & Sakko, M. 1988. The evolution of the Raahe-Ladoga zone in Finland: isotopic constraints. Geol. Surv. Finland, Bulletin 343, 7-32.
16. Kousa, J., Marttila, E. & Vaasjoki, M. 1994. Petrology, geochemistry and dating of Paleoproterozoic metavolcanic rocks in the Pyhäjärvi area, central Finland. Geol. Surv. Finland, Special Paper 19, 7-27.
17. Gaál, G. (ed.) 1988. Exploration target selection by integration of geodata using statistical and image processing techniques: an example from Central Finland. Geol. Surv. Finland, Report of Investigation 80. 156 p.
18. Tontti, M., Koistinen, E. & Seppänen, H. 1981. Vihannin Zn-Cu-malmivyöhykkeen geomatemaattinen arviointi. Summary: Geomathematical evaluation of the Vihanti Zn-Cu ore zone. Geol. Surv. Finland, Report of Investigation 54. 58 p.
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